Definition and Examples of Questions in English

Definition and Examples of Questions in English In grammar, a question is a type of sentence expressed in a form that requires (or appears to require) an answer. Also known as an interrogative sentence, a question is generally distinguished from a sentence that makes a statement, delivers a command, or expresses an exclamation. In terms of syntax, a question is usually characterized by inversion of the subject and the first verb in the verb phrase, beginning with an interrogative pronoun or ending with a tag question. Linguists commonly recognize three main types of questions: Yes-No Questions, Wh- Questions, and Alternative Questions. Examples and Observations This is a question that no one particularly wants to hear, but, where did they put his head?(Xander in Teachers Pet. Buffy the Vampire Slayer, 1997)I know this is a silly question before I ask it, but can you Americans speak any other language besides English?​  (Diane Kruger as Bridget von Hammersmark in Inglourious Basterds, 2009)Question is, what did camouflaged robot mercenaries want with you? And how did you get inside the TARDIS?​  (The Doctor in The Runaway Bride. Doctor Who, 2005) Structuring Questions To form a polar question (one expecting yes/no as an answer), the first auxiliary verb, which bears a tense inflection, is moved to the front of the clause. Corresponding to John was eating the halva we get Was John eating the halva? There must be at least one verb in the auxiliary for question formationif the VP contains none of have, be or a modal then do must be included to take the tense inflection; thus, corresponding to the statement John ate the halva, we get the question, Did John eat the halva?   A wh- question (expecting a phrase or clause as answer) involves the same fronting, and in addition a wh- word (who, whom, whose, what, which, how, why, where or when), which refers to the same constituent of the main clause, must precede the preposed auxiliary word. Compare John was hitting Mary with Who was hitting Mary?  Mary arrived yesterday with When did Mary arrive? and John ate the halva with What did John eat? If the constituent being questioned had a preposition associated with it, then this may either be moved to initial position, before the wh- word, or it can be left in its underlying position in the clause. Thus, corresponding to He owes his success to hard work we can have either What does he owe his success to? or To what does he owe his success?(R.M.W. Dixon, A New Approach to English Grammar, on Semantic Principles. Oxford University Press, 1991) Examples of Question Types [In the following joke, the attorneys initial wh- ​question is followed by two yes-no questions and a final alternative question.]A woman went to an attorney to ask about a divorce.What grounds do you have, madam?About six acres.No, I dont think you quite understand. Let me rephrase the question. Do you have a grudge?No, just a parking space.lll try again. Does your husband beat you up?No, l always get up at least an hour before he does.The attorney could see he was fighting a losing battle. Madam, do you want a divorce or not?Im not the one who wants a divorce, she said. My husband does. He claims we dont communicate.(adapted from The Mammoth Book of Humor, by Geoff Tibballs. Carroll Graf, 2000) Intonation in Questions American English typically has rising intonation across the utterance for what are called yes-no questions (She bought a new car?) and falling intonation for information-seeking questions (also called wh- questions) (What does she want to buy?), although there is much variation in these patterns in both American and British dialects.​  (Kristin Denham and Anne Lobeck, Linguistics for Everyone. Wadsworth, 2010) Why Ads Use Questions Questions, like commands, imply a direct address to the readerthey require someone to answer. Thats why they are often used on magazine covers, like these from one issue of Cosmopolitan: At long last love. Are you sure its the real thing?THE CONDOM. Whats in it for you?Hired or fired? How to leave your job in style. We take them as requiring a response, like a ringing phone. There is another more subtle effect questions can havethey can contain presuppositions that are almost impossible to discard if one interprets the text.​  (Greg Myers, Words in Ads. Routledge, 1994) Questions as Technologies in Disguise Questions, then, are like computers or television or stethoscopes or lie detectors, in that they are mechanisms that give direction to our thoughts, generate new ideas, venerate old ones, expose facts or hide them.​  (Neil Postman, Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992)

Andes - The Worlds Longest Mountain Chain

Andes - The World's Longest Mountain Chain The Andes are a chain of mountains that extends 4,300 miles along the west coast of South America and bisects seven countries- Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The Andes are the longest chain of mountains in the world and include many of the highest peaks in the Western Hemisphere. Although the Andes is a long mountain chain, they are also narrow. Along their length, the east-to-west breadth of the Andes varies between about 120 and 430 miles wide. The climate throughout the Andes is highly variable and depends on latitude, altitude, topography, precipitation patterns, and proximity to the ocean. The Andes are divided into three regions- the northern Andes, the central Andes, and the southern Andes. Within each region, there is much variation in climate and habitats. The northern Andes of Venezuela and Colombia are warm and wet and include habitats such as tropical forests and cloud forests. The central Andes- which extend through Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia- experience more seasonal variation than the northern Andes and habitats in this region fluctuate between a dry season and a wet season. The southern Andes of Chile and Argentina are divided into two distinct zones- the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. There are about 3,700 species of animals that live in the Andes including 600 species of mammals, 1,700 species of birds, 600 species of reptiles, and 400 species of fishes, and more than 200 species of amphibians. Key Characteristics The following are the key characteristics of the Andes: longest mountain chain in the worldincludes the Atacama desert, the driest desert in the worldincludes the Andean Plateau, the second-highest plateau in the worldlocated on the Pacific Ring of Fireincludes of the highest active volcano in the world, Ojos del Salado, which lies on the border of Argentina and Chilesupports a number of rare and endangered species including short-tailed chinchillas, Andean flamingos, Andean condors, spectacled bears, Junin rails, and Titicaca water frogs Animals of the Andes Some of the animals that inhabit the Andes include: Alapca (Vicugna pacos) - The alpaca is a domesticated species of even-toed hoofed mammal that belongs to the camel family. Alpacas are native to South American. They are kept in herds in the high altitude plateaus in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and northern Chile. Alpacas are grazers that feed on hay and grasses.Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) - The Andean condor is found throughout the Andes, although it is far less common in the mountain ranges of Venezuela and Columbia. Andean Condors inhabit grasslands and alpine habitats up to 16,000 feet. It prefers open habitats where it can locate carrion as it soars above.Short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla chinchilla) - The short-tailed chinchilla is one of just two species of chinchillas alive today, the other being the long-tailed chinchilla. Short-tailed chinchillas are an endangered species of rodent that once inhabited areas of the central and southern Andes. The species was heavily exploited for its fur and as a result their numbers declin ed drastically. Short-tailed chinchillas are currently classified as critically endangered on the IUCN RedList. Andean mountain cat (Leopardus jacobita) - The Andean mountain cat is a small cat that inhabits high montane regions of the central Andes. The Andean mountain cat is rare, with less than 2,500 individuals remaining in the wild.Titicaca water frog (Telmatobius culeus) - The Titicaca water frog is a critically endangered frog that is endemic to Lake Titicaca. Titicaca water frogs were once common but have declined due to hunting, pollution, and predation  by trout that have been introduced to the lake.Andean goose (Chloephaga melanoptera) - The Andean goose is a large sheldgoose with black and white plumage, a pink bill, and orange legs and feet. The Andean goose inhabits elevations of the Andes above 9,800 feet in Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile.Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) - The spectacled bear is South Americas only native species of bear. It inhabits forested areas of the Andes mountain range including Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru. Spectacled bears have black fur, keen eyesight, and distinctive golden-colored rings of fur framing their eyes.

Supreme Court case that focuses on Criminal Law Research Paper

Supreme Court case that focuses on Criminal Law - Research Paper Example On October 31, 2001, the District Court reversed its’ decision and granted him the writ of habeas corpus, after determining that his reasoning for requesting it was that his sentence of death was unconstitutional. Martin Horn, Commissioner of the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections argued that the â€Å"Supreme Court precedent did not require an outcome contrary to that reached by the state courts (536 U. S. ____ (2002). However, several other appellate and circuit courts found discrepancies in the way in which the case was handled and that it violated several Constitutional Amendments. One of the major points raised in attempts to repeal the death sentence was a case involving Teague v. Lane. The reason for stating Teague was to declare its purpose regarding the state’s ruling on criminal convictions depending upon the constitutional standards at the time of the actual proceedings. Amendments were made to the Teague ruling stating that these protectionist goals should be applied retroactively. The Supreme Court determined that "federal courts must address the Teague question when it is properly argued by the government." The Court then proposed the matter of Caspari v. Bohlen, that Teagues "nonretroactivity principle prevents a federal court from granting habeas corpus relief to a state prisoner based on a" new rule, and thus that "if the State ... argue[s] that the defendant seeks the benefit of a new rule of constitutional law, the court must apply Teague before considering the merits of the claim." The Supreme Court then decided that it was necessary for them to reconsider Banks’ sentence according to the Teague case and that the case of Mills v. Maryland was more important (Justia US Law 2003). The final determination however was that it was unnecessary to rule retroactively regardless of the circumstances that might have made it an arguable point. The Supreme Court ruled that

Is building new roads the solution to traffic congestion in the UK Essay

Is building new roads the solution to traffic congestion in the UK - Essay Example This is the most common argument, which is made about the roads of any major country. Even the political leaders promise to develop the country lifestyle by building new roads whereas developing the existing roads can also matter as far as the progress of the country is concerned. Highly congested roads have very poor safety records. UK being one of the oldest countries in the whole world has many roads, which are very old and unplanned. These roads are not perfect for the people to travel through them. Congestion is the main thing, which appears to be highly dangerous for the travellers. Number of accidents is very high on these parts of the country. This is the reason why the government talks about making newer roads. This is important so that they can divert the excessive traffic to the other ways. (Ascorbic, 2005) Motorways are our safest roads, yet the government is afraid to build them, as they will allow vehicles to run at high speed. We can take look at the ancient times when the Romans used to build new roads while they planned for a new country. (Icknield Way Association, 2004) Their roads were straight and many of these roads smoothed their lifestyle a lot. But here the differences between the Roman ancient roads and the existing roads in UK can be seen. In this country people travel through roads, which are not scientifically planned, and therefore risks of accidents are higher with them. Roman highways in many senses resemble the motorways of the modern infrastructure. So there is an argument in which building motorways are thought to be one of the best-known solutions for a country like UK. (Hume, 2007; Hogarty, 1999) Building up new roads can bring development to the local communities and this work can be done with the help of bypasses and flyovers. Building up new roads also opens up the newer opportunities for corporations and smaller business houses as goods transportation becomes easier than before. It is also like a death for the

Color dichotomy vs. the ethnoracial pentagon Essay Example for Free

Color dichotomy vs. the ethnoracial pentagon Essay Throughout American politics, two particularly well known categorizations of race and ethnicity have arisen: Color Dichotomy and the later Ethno-racial Pentagon. Each seeks to define and categorize the vast racial diversity America prides itself on. While intending to create clear and fair ethno-racial constructions, there are obvious advantages and weak spots to each for the purposes of analyzing American politics. An old-fashioned and less popular method of categorization is the Color Dichotomy. This concept distinguishes two complementing counterparts to every situation; in terms of race and ethnicity: white and nonwhite (people of color). In the US, about 75% of Americans identify as white, while about 25% of Americans identify themselves as nonwhite. Applying this construct to other dividing barriers among people, other categories appear such as: oppressor vs oppressed, Hegemon vs. other, and dominant vs. minority. The main advantage of this concept is in its simplicity. By having only two dividing categories, everyone could conceivably fit neatly into one of these two categories. Collapsing an incredible amount of diversity of culture into one all encompassing colored category, however; this framework obviously contains numerous problems. Thousands of differences between many races and culture are consequently ignored. [] all distinctions between various colored peoples are less significant than the fact that they are nonwhite (Hollinger 25). It could also be argued that even the white category collapses many different origins into a bland and stereotypical title. The outright ignorance present within this model leads to its unpopularity within American politics especially. The ethno-racial pentagon challenges this model by supplying strong cultural content. In contrast to the two divisions within the color dichotomy, the ethno-racial pentagon provides five more specific categorizations of race/ethnicity: Euro-American, Asian American, African American, Hispanic/Latino, and Indigenous Peoples/Native American. To be sure, a value of the pentagon is its capacity to call attention to a certain range of social and cultural diversity (Hollinger 25). The pentagon also keeps some simplicity, however, so that people are easily categorized for the purposes of affirmative actionetc. Although this framework is more  attentive to the differences in the nonwhite group of the Color Dichotomy, it also still retains similar problems of ignoring certain races or collapsing many together into one. All of these ethno-racial blocs have distinguishable diversities which are ignored in order to be jammed into one category or another. Least apparent is the diversity within the Euro-American bloc, or whites. Indeed, Jews, who are now considered Euro-American/white, used to be considered a different race altogether. The Irish and the English, between which existed the vehement tension of conflict and oppression, are now thrust together under the same category with the ethno-racial pentagon. The internal diversity within the Asian American group (Koreans, Cambodians, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Japaneseand all of the consequent subgroups) must be quietly faded in order to make the category a unit; ignoring such tension between Koreans and Japanese for example. Another bloc in which the condensation of ethnic diversity is also less obvious is that African American bloc. The specific country of origin and culture within the African American bloc is forgotten or ignored as inconsequential. Key to this objection is the one-drop rule. This rule maintains that one drop of African American blood in a person designates that person African American regardless of their other ethnicity(ies). This rule obviously exists to maintain the existence of the African American category without the complications of recognizing white mixing (or other races). This gives the gross impression that African American blood is tainted, infectious, and overpowering. Besides ignoring differences within blocs, another major problem with the ethno-racial pentagon is the exclusion of Arab Americans and multiracial people. According the pentagon, Arabs do not even exist in the US. Multiracial people must either choose only one of their heritages and ignore the other, or choose not to be included under the pentagon. Both of these groups threaten to turn the pentagon into a hexagon. However, even this conformation would be unsuccessful as multiracial people are not necessarily part of their own racial group, but two or more. Ignoring their legitimate ethnicities to create a new bloc which only recognizes the fact that they are multiracial, and not their individual races, would create further problems. These visibly unfair factors continue to weaken the foundation  supporting the ethno-racial pentagon. The ethno-racial pentagon furthermore places a strong and unnecessary emphasis on race as a dividing factor. Identifying an individual as one race or another brings excessive attention on the differences that could potentially separate Americans if these barriers are continually exaggerated and stressed. Interracial relationships are ignored with both systems. However, from a biological perspective, race can almost be ruled out as inconsequential. [] The genetic variation from one race to another is scarcely greater than the genetic variation between races (Hollinger 34). Morever, Hollinger claims If the classical race theory of the nineteenth century is not directly behind the pentagon, this structures architecture has its unmistakable origins in the most gross and invidious of popular images of what makes human beings different from one another (32). Overall, the two frameworks for categorization of ethnicity and race contain too many internal weaknesses to be used effectively and fairly in American politics.

Philip Larkin’s The Whitsun Weddings Essay -- Whitsun Weddings

Philip Larkin’s The Whitsun Weddings   Ã‚  Ã‚   As I was reading Philip Larkin’s "The Whitsun Weddings," I was initially struck by the difference between his use of language and the language used by many of the poets we read earlier in the course. The difference between the language of the two W.B. Yeats poems we wrote about previously and this poem by Larkin was particularly striking. Of course, the use of language changed slowly, with each poet we have read between Yeats and Larkin becoming less like the former and more like the latter. But, I suppose I noticed it more in this poem because I was paying more attention to detail in order to comment on the poem.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The speaker of this poem is on a train headed south to London for a long weekend, and begins his/her journey on a Saturday afternoon. It is a late spring or even early summer day, as it is seven weeks after Easter (fn. 1061). Initially, the content of the poem is rather simple, but the language and description are quite rich. Larkin appeals to four of the five senses and makes his reader feel as if they are on the train with the speaker. As I read the poem, I felt like I could hear the train pull out of the station and feel the heat of the cushions under my legs. Then I was seeing the "blinding windscreens" and smelling the "fish-dock". As the poem and the rich description continued, I was then looking at "[c]anals with floatings of industrial froth" and... ...es ahead of them. On the other hand, the line "there swelled / A sense of falling" could be describing their lingering doubts that maybe their families were right and they are making a mistake.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Since the poem ends on that more somber note of "a sense of falling," we leave the poem feeling that the ending will not be happy for these newly married couples. We are full of the beauty of the land as described by the speaker, as well as the dreariness of the future as the people in the poem see it. What started out as a fairly upbeat and happy poem leaves you with a sense of despair and impending doom.    Works Cited Urdang, Laurence, ed.   The American Century Dictionary.   New York: Oxford UP, 1995.

Cam Therapeutics Modalities Paper

CAM Therapeutics Modalities Paper Shakita A Hunter SCI/201 October 31, 2011 Macharia Waruingi CAM Therapeutics Modalities Paper Individuals have taken the option to take better care of themselves by taking steps to improve their health. The complementary and alternative medicine, otherwise known as CAM, is a group made up of practices, products, medical and healthcare systems with diverse backgrounds. The different practices of CAM are grouped in different categories associated with â€Å"natural products, mind and body medicine, and manipulative and body-based practices†(NCCAM,2011). The purpose of this essay is to defined alternative medicine, complementary medicine and integrative medicine. It will describe how conventional medicine plays a role in these three types of medicine. In addition, the essay will further discuss the philosophy of CAM; how it relates to conventional Western medicine as well as describes the five domains of therapies. Finally, the essay will describe one CAM treatment modality within the five domains if therapies and how it meets the definition of alternative, complementary, or integrative therapy. When discussing complementary medicine, it is referred to as standard care. It is proven to be safe and effective. â€Å"Complementary medicine includes techniques such as acupuncture, herbal medicine, massage, support groups, and yoga†(NCCAM,2011). This type of medicine can affect an individual’s physical being, spiritual being, emotional being, and social being. It can help a person’s immune system become more healthier and it can also have the ability to fight off a disease. Outside of the realm of conventional medicine, there is another form of medicine that is called alternative medicine. With alternative medicine, individuals are require to do a bit more work. Alternative medicine includes a broad range of practices. Some healing therapies are based on Ancient Chinese beliefs, like acupuncture and the use of certain herbal compounds. Others focus on Hindu, or Ayurvedic, therapies including diet changes, the practice of yoga, and emphasizing the connection of mind, body, and spirit†( Ellis-Christensen,2011). With alternative m edicine, the negative side effects almost do not exist. People may want to go to a Wal-mart or pharmacy to purchase herbs, vitamins, or other supplements and can get them at a reasonable price. Many of these herbs, supplements and produce are the basis of much of alternative medicine which is overlooked for the most part in terms of their health benefits. One form of natural, alternative medicine that is frequently used by many comes in the convenient form of tea. The herbal teas Echinacea and Chamomile naturally help support the body’s immune system. Whether for sore muscles, the stomach flu, or a cold, herbal teas can suppress the illness until the symptoms have passed and wellness has been restored. Integrative medicine is a combination of conventional Western medicine with complementary and alternative medicine or treatments. The various techniques that can be utilized from both complementary and alternative treatments are all in the effort to treat the person in whole. For any integrative medicine program, the goal for the physician is to truly bring together â€Å" allopathic medicine with mind-body-spirit modalities with the ultimate goal of helping patients or individuals adapt to traditional medical treatments. The modalities directly affects the body’s physiological healing process while gently awakening the mind-body-spirit connection needed to enhance the healing process†(Beaumont Health Systems, 2011). Within the complementary and alternative medical practices are healthcare practices that are part of conventional practices. â€Å"NCCAM groups CAM practices within five major domains, acknowledging that other groupings are possible: native medical systems, (2) mind-body interventions, (3) biologically based treatments, (4) manipulative and body-based methods, and (5) energy therapies†(NCCAM,2011). Alternative medical systems are practiced through various cultures in the world. The Asian medical systems use traditional techniques such as acupuncture, oriental massage, herbal medicine, and other energy therapy to promote healing. As mentioned before, Ayurveda is a traditional medicine of India. Homeopathy is a traditional medicine developed in Germany as well as naturop athy. All traditional medicines are considered to be a part of the complete alternative medical system. * Mind-body interventions have a variety of healing techniques that are designed to make the mind’s capacity easier to process bodily functions and symptoms. These techniques include art therapy, dance, hypnosis, music, and prayer. * With biologically based therapies, it involves the use of dietary supplements and special diet therapies. â€Å"Biological therapies include, for example, the use of laetrile and shark cartilage to treat cancer and bee pollen to treat autoimmune and inflammatory diseases†(NCCAM,2011). * Manipulative and body-based methods have treatments such as full body massage. Physicians in the field of osteopathy use body manipulation to reduce pain, promote health and well-being, and restores function. Overall, it helps the body to become more calm and relaxed. Lastly, energy therapies help the body heal from other energy sources, An example of an energy therapy is biofield and bioelectromagnetic-based therapy. These therapies are used as treatments for cancer, asthma as well as manage pain due to migraine headaches. Complementary and alternative medicines are used to promote health and prosperity. It is the way of life. All cultures have their own way of treating illness but at the end of the day, it would leave a person healthier mentally, emotionally, spiritually, and physically. References Beaumont Health Systems. (2011). Integrative Medicine. Retrieved from http://www. beaumont. edu/integrative-medicine Ellis-Christensen, T. (09/29/2011). What is Alternative Medicine? Retrieved from http://www. wisegeek. com/what-is-alternative-medicine. htm National Center for Alternative and Complementary Medicine. (July 2011). What Is Complementary and Alternative Medicine? Retrieved from http://nccam. nih. gov/health/whatiscam/ National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (2011). MAJOR DOMAINS OF COMPLEMENTAR Y AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE. Retrieved from http://nccam. nih. gov/about/plans/fiveyear/fiveyear. pdf

A Corner of the Universe Essay

â€Å"He was called lots of names. And that was one of the things that made it hard to be Adam. Hattie (pig. 177) Like I said sooner or lat r friendships will be made, and new memories will be made. All through the book Hatter's grandparents were always trying to live in this little â€Å"perfect life†, but as we know life isn't perfect, and with life comes challenge gees and their challenge was dealing with Adam. Dealing with Adam is tough because h e was mentally disabled, and also when others would pick on Adam or things would NT go his way he'd get upset, and this would somehow ruin the routine Of his parent's † perfect lives†. One quote that states this is, â€Å"Maybe Nana and Papa think he doesn't fit in there.Certainly, he is not part of the perfect world Nana has worked so hard to cream et. † Hattie (pig. 34) This quote means that even if Adam is their son he isn't â€Å"perfect t†. At first this does bother Adam, but then he realizes that h e has Hattie and Leila (Leila sis character met further on in the book) and he is fine with that. When you look back at all the things you have done with your friends all that is there is memories of your past that you have shared together. In the b ask â€Å"A Corner of the Universe†, Adam, Hattie, and Leila have an â€Å"adventure† with one another.The quote that states that is, â€Å"Oh, Oh, what an adventure, Hattie Owen! An ad Venture indeed. (pig. 127) Adam is overjoyed about the â€Å"adventure† he is going to have with Hattie and Leila, he can't wait. With our friends we share experiences that can never be replaced that is why friendships hold such a precious value. Overall friendships hold a value like no other, that even gold's value is nothing when compared to a long lasting closeness. With friendships people h eave experiences, just like Adam did with Hattie and Leila. Also with that pact you f arm a bond that can never be broken.

Summarize Ibn Khaldun Essays - Sunni Islam, Madhhab, Mujaddid

Summarize Ibn Khaldun Essays - Sunni Islam, Madhhab, Mujaddid Alexandra Tolhurst Ibn Khalduns narrative on the history of Islamic law is one that paints the history as almost an intricate depiction of natural selection: one that started with many schools and religious scholars, but with passing time, rising dynasties and caliphs, and majority opinions, was reduced to four main schools of legal thought. Before we reach this reduction in the history, we first must talk about the rise of jurisprudence and the main ideas behind Islamic law. The beginning of Islamic law can be traced to the Koran and the Sunna, which is where the laws of Islam are derived from. The original laws are derived from texts written in Arabic, which becomes important in the more recent history of Islamic law when many less scholars know Arabic. While the Koran cannot be disputed, the traditions, or Sunna, vary widely because of the reliability of the transmitters, but originally, the only differences in opinion that occurred in Muslim society were due to the need to know exactly what to reference in new cases that Muhammad himself was not there to give an answer for. This is what gave birth to the first jurists (though they were called readers at first) and marked the real beginning of Islamic law. Men who were deeply versed in the Koran and its ambiguity were the first to give legal decisions since they had learned from Muhammad himself or from His companions, which deemed them worthy. They were the ones called readers, who were by technical t erms the first jurists, and were rare by the fact that they were literate. Each playing a role in the rise of the schools of legal thought were the differences in opinion between the first religious scholars, the first ideas of the jurists, and mainly the rise of cities and literacy. With the rise of jurists and religious scholars came the add-on of the two less accepted approaches to jurisprudence: the use of opinion and analogy, highly used by the Iraqis, and the use of traditions, highly used by Hijazis. The first schools to form were the Iraqis, centered around Abu Hanifah; Hijazis, centered around Malik; Zahirites, centered around Dawud; and the Alids and Kharijites. Of these, the Hijazis and Malik was most followed, as Malik was a distinguished scholar in the religious law world at the time because he thought the practice of the Medinese was evidence for law, therefore he added a source of law. Following Malik, ShafiI founded another school combining Hijazi and Iraqi schools of thought, who was then followed by Hanbal, then by Hanifah. Eventually, all schools that didnt represent the use of opinion and analogy or tradition were abandoned, leaving the four main schools of legal thought recognized in the Muslim world: Hanbals school, Hanifahs school, ShafiIs school, and Maliks school. Hanbals school of legal thought is mostly concentrated in Syria after a clash with Shii in Baghdad, and is known for the knowledge of the Sunna and the traditions. Hanifahs school is wide-spread through India, China, and non-Arab countries. Maliks school was prominent in Egypt until the ShiI dynasty brought the return of a more orthodox law to Egypt, which eventually brought ShafiIs school to be the dominating school in Egypt, which is where most of the followers of the school are. After the fall of the Malikites in Egypt, the school was narrowly restricted to Maghribis and Spaniards, where their paths would not cross with ShafiIs or Iraqis. While silently flourishing in these areas, Maliks school developed three separate schools within, one of which (Iraqi) was previously followed in Egypt, but later on, the three schools merged. Its important to recognize that the science of jurisprudence, especially the need for it, is a relatively new concept and is very important in religious law. The need wasnt apparent until multiple generations after Muhammad when there was no longer a clear way to decide which transmitters of tradition were reliable, which was necessary to derive laws from evidence. The first scholar to write on this was Shafii. After ShafiI, Hanafite jurists wrote works to verify rules and perfect the technique of jurisprudence. The differences in the opinions of the four schools led to the first debates.

World War I - Middle East and Africa Campaigns

World War I - Middle East and Africa Campaigns As World War I descended across Europe in August 1914, it also saw fighting erupt across the colonial empires of the belligerents. These conflicts typically involved smaller forces and with one exception resulted in the defeat and capture of Germanys colonies. Also, as the fighting on the Western Front stagnated in to trench warfare, the Allies sought secondary theaters for striking at the Central Powers. Many of these targeted the weakened Ottoman Empire and saw the spread of fighting to Egypt and the Middle East. In the Balkans, Serbia, who had played a key role in starting of the conflict, was ultimately overwhelmed leading to a new front in Greece. War Comes to the Colonies Formed in early 1871, Germany was a later comer to the competition for empire. As a result, the new nation was forced to direct its colonial efforts towards the less preferred parts of Africa and the islands of the Pacific. While German merchants began operations in Togo, Kamerun (Cameroon), South-West Africa (Namibia), and East Africa (Tanzania), others were planting colonies in Papua, Samoa, as well as the Caroline, Marshall, Solomon, Mariana, and Bismarck Islands. In addition, the port of Tsingtao was taken from the Chinese in 1897. With the outbreak of war in Europe, Japan elected to declare war on Germany citing its obligations under the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1911. Moving quickly, Japanese troops seized the Marianas, Marshalls, and Carolines. Transferred to Japan after the war, these islands became a key part of its defensive ring during World War II. While the islands were being captured, a 50,000-man force was dispatched to Tsingtao. Here they conducted a classic siege with the aid of British forces and took the port on November 7, 1914. Far to the south, Australian and New Zealand forces captured Papua and Samoa. Battling for Africa While the German position in the Pacific was quickly swept away, their forces in Africa mounted a more vigorous defense. Though Togo was swiftly taken on August 27, British and French forces encountered difficulties in Kamerun. Though possessing greater numbers, the Allies were hampered by distance, topography, and climate. While initial efforts to capture the colony failed, a second campaign took the capital at Douala on September 27. Delayed by weather and enemy resistance, the final German outpost at Mora was not taken until February 1916. In South-West Africa, British efforts were slowed by the need to put down a Boer revolt before crossing the border from South Africa. Attacking in January 1915, South African forces advanced in four columns on the German capital at Windhoek. Taking the town on May 12, 1915, they compelled the colonys unconditional surrender two months later. The Last Holdout Only in German East Africa was the war to last the duration. Though the governors of East Africa and British Kenya wished to observe a pre-war understanding exempting Africa from hostilities, those within their borders clamored for war. Leading the German Schutztruppe (colonial defense force) was Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck. A veteran imperial campaigner, Lettow-Vorbeck embarked on a remarkable campaign which saw him repeatedly defeat larger Allied forces. Utilizing African soldiers known as askiris, his command lived off the land and conducted an ongoing guerilla campaign. Tying down increasingly large numbers of British troops, Lettow-Vorbeck suffered several reverses in 1917 and 1918, but was never captured. The remnants of his command finally surrendered after the armistice on November 23, 1918, and Lettow-Vorbeck returned to Germany a hero. The Sick Man at War On August 2, 1914, the Ottoman Empire, long known as the Sick Man of Europe for its declining power, concluded an alliance with Germany against Russia. Long courted by Germany, the Ottomans had worked to re-equip their army with German weapons and used the Kaisers military advisors. Utilizing the German battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau, both of which had been transferred to Ottoman control after escaping British pursuers in the Mediterranean, Minister of War Enver Pasha ordered naval attacks against Russian ports on October 29. As a result, Russia declared war on November 1, followed by Britain and France four days later. With the beginning of hostilities, General Otto Liman von Sanders, Ever Pashas chief German advisor, expected the Ottomans to attack north into the Ukrainian plains. Instead, Ever Pasha elected to assault Russia through the mountains of the Caucasus. In this area the Russians advanced first gaining ground as the Ottoman commanders did not wish to attack in the severe winter weather. Angered, Ever Pasha took direct control and was badly defeated in the Battle of Sarikamis in December 1914/January 1915. To the south, the British, concerned about ensuring the Royal Navys access to Persian oil, landed the 6th Indian Division at Basra on November 7. Taking the city, it advanced to secure Qurna. The Gallipoli Campaign Contemplating the Ottoman entry into the war, First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill developed a plan for attacking the Dardanelles. Using the ships of the Royal Navy, Churchill believed, partially due to faulty intelligence, that the straits could be forced, opening the way for a direct assault on Constantinople. Approved, the Royal Navy had three attacks on the straits turned back in February and early March 1915. A massive assault on March 18 also failed with the loss of three older battleships. Unable to penetrate the Dardanelles due to Turkish mines and artillery, the decision was made to land troops on the Gallipoli Peninsula to remove the threat (Map). Entrusted to General Sir Ian Hamilton, the operation called for landings at Helles and farther north at Gaba Tepe. While the troops at Helles were to push north, the Australia and New Zealand Army Corps was to push east and prevent the retreat of the Turkish defenders. Going ashore on April 25, Allied forces took heavy losses and failed to achieve their objectives. Battling on Gallipolis mountainous terrain, Turkish forces under Mustafa Kemal held the line and fighting stalemated into trench warfare. On August 6, a third landing at Sulva Bay was also contained by the Turks. After a failed offensive in August, fighting quieted as the British debated strategy (Map). Seeing no other recourse, the decision was made to evacuate Gallipoli and the last Allied troops departed on January 9, 1916. Mesopotamia Campaign In Mesopotamia, British forces successfully repelled an Ottoman attack at Shaiba on April 12, 1915. Having been reinforced, the British commander, General Sir John Nixon, ordered Major General Charles Townshend to advance up the Tigris River to Kut and, if possible, Baghdad. Reaching Ctesiphon, Townshend encountered an Ottoman force under Nureddin Pasha on November 22. After five days of inconclusive fighting, both sides withdrew. Retreating to Kut-al-Amara, Townshend was followed by Nureddin Pasha who laid siege to the British force on December 7. Several attempts were made to lift the siege in early 1916 with no success and Townshend surrendered on April 29 (Map). Unwilling to accept defeat, the British dispatched Lieutenant General Sir Fredrick Maude to retrieve the situation. Reorganizing and reinforcing his command, Maude began a methodical offensive up the Tigris on December 13, 1916. Repeatedly outmaneuvering the Ottomans, he retook Kut and pressed towards Baghdad. Defeating Ottoman forces along the Diyala River, Maude captured Baghdad on March 11, 1917. Maude then halted in the city to reorganize his supply lines and avoid the summer heat. Dying of cholera in November, he was replaced by General Sir William Marshall. With troops being diverted from his command to expand operations elsewhere, Marshall slowly pushed towards to the Ottoman base at Mosul. Advancing towards the city, it was finally occupied on November 14, 1918, two weeks after the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities. Defense of the Suez Canal As Ottoman forces campaigned in the Caucasus and Mesopotamia, they also began moving to strike at the Suez Canal. Closed by the British to enemy traffic at the start of the war, the canal was a key line of strategic communication for the Allies. Though Egypt was still technically part of the Ottoman Empire, it had been under British administration since 1882 and was rapidly filling with British and Commonwealth troops. Moving through the desert wastes of the Sinai Peninsula, Turkish troops under General Ahmed Cemal and his German chief of staff Franz Kress von Kressenstein attacked the canal area on February 2, 1915. Alerted to their approach, British forces drove off the attackers after two days of fighting. Though a victory, the threat to the canal forced the British to leave a stronger garrison in Egypt than intended. Into the Sinai For over a year the Suez front remained quiet as fighting raged at Gallipoli and in Mesopotamia. In the summer of 1916, von Kressenstein made another attempt on the canal. Advancing across the Sinai, he met a well-prepared British defense led by General Sir Archibald Murray. In the resulting  Battle of Romani  on August 3-5, the British forced the Turks to retreat. Going over the offensive, the British pushed across Sinai, building a railroad and water pipeline as they went. Winning battles at  Magdhaba  and  Rafa, they were ultimately stopped by the Turks at the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917 (Map). When a second attempt to take the city failed in April, Murray was sacked in favor of General Sir Edmund Allenby. Palestine Reorganizing his command, Allenby commenced the  Third Battle of Gaza  on October 31. Flanking the Turkish line at Beersheba, he won decisive victory. On Allenbys flank were the Arab forces guided by  Major T.E. Lawrence  (Lawrence of Arabia) who had previously captured the port of Aqaba. Dispatched to Arabia in 1916, Lawrence successfully worked to foment unrest among the Arabs who then revolted against Ottoman rule. With the Ottomans in retreat, Allenby rapidly pushed north, taking Jerusalem on December 9 (Map). Thought the British wished to deliver a death blow to the Ottomans in early 1918, their plans were undone by the beginning of the German  Spring Offensives  on the Western Front. The bulk of Allenbys veteran troops were transferred west to aid in blunting the German assault. As a result, much of the spring and summer was consumed rebuilding his forces from newly recruited troops. Ordering the Arabs to harass the Ottoman rear, Allenby opened the  Battle of Megiddo  on September 19. Shattering an Ottoman army under von Sanders, Allenbys men rapidly advanced and captured Damascus on October 1. Though their southern forces had been destroyed, the government in Constantinople refused to surrender and continued the fight elsewhere. Fire in the Mountains In the wake of the victory at Sarikamis, command of Russian forces in the Caucasus was given to General Nikolai Yudenich. Pausing to reorganize his forces, he embarked on an offensive in May 1915. This was aided by an Armenian revolt at Van which had erupted the previous month. While one wing of the attack succeeded in relieving Van, the other was halted after advancing through the Tortum Valley towards Erzurum. Exploiting the success at Van and with Armenian guerillas striking the enemy rear, Russian troops secured Manzikert on May 11. Due to the Armenian activity, the Ottoman government passed the Tehcir Law calling for the forced relocation of Armenians from the area. Subsequent Russian efforts during the summer were fruitless and Yudenich took the fall to rest and reinforce. In January, Yudenich returned to the attack winning the Battle of Koprukoy and driving on Erzurum. Taking the city in March, Russian forces captured Trabzon the following month and began pushing south towards Bitlis. Pressing on, both Bitlis and Mush were taken. These gains were short-lived as Ottoman forces under Mustafa Kemal recaptured both later that summer. The lines stabilized through the fall as both sides recuperated from the campaigning. Though the Russian command wished to renew the assault in 1917, social and political unrest at home prevented this. With the outbreak of the Russian Revolution, Russian forces began withdrawing on the Caucasus front and eventually evaporated away. Peace was achieved through the  Treaty of Brest-Litovsk  in which Russia ceded territory to the Ottomans. The Fall of Serbia While fighting raged on the major fronts of the war in 1915, most of the year was relatively quiet in Serbia. Having successfully fended off an Austro-Hungarian invasion in late-1914, Serbia desperately worked to rebuild its battered army though it lacked the manpower to do so effectively. Serbias situation changed dramatically late in the year when following Allied defeats at Gallipoli and Gorlice-Tarnow, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and mobilized for war on September 21. On October 7, German and Austro-Hungarian forces renewed the assault on Serbia with Bulgaria attacking four days later. Badly outnumbered and under pressure from two directions, the Serbian army was forced to retreat. Falling back to the southwest, the Serbian army conducted a long march to Albania but remained intact (Map). Having anticipated the invasion, the Serbs had begged for the Allies to send aid. Developments in Greece Due to variety of factors, this could only be routed through the neutral Greek port of Salonika. While proposals for opening a secondary front at Salonika had been discussed by the Allied high command earlier in the war, they had been dismissed as a waste of resources. This view changed on September 21 when Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos advised the British and French that if they sent 150,000 men to Salonika, he could bring Greece into the war on the Allied side. Though quickly dismissed by the pro-German King Constantine, Venizelos plan led to the arrival of Allied troops at Salonika on October 5. Led by French General Maurice Sarrail, this force was able to provide little aid to the retreating Serbians The Macedonian Front As the Serbian army was evacuated to Corfu, Austrian forces occupied much of Italian-controlled Albania. Believing the war in the region lost, the British expressed a desire to withdraw their troops from Salonika. This met with protests from the French and the British unwillingly remained. Building a massive fortified camp around the port, the Allies were soon joined by the remnants of the Serbian army. In Albania, an Italian force was landed in the south and made gains in the country south of Lake Ostrovo. Expanding the front out from Salonika, the Allies held a small German-Bulgarian offensive in August and counterattacked on September 12. Achieving some gains, Kaymakchalan and Monastir were both taken (Map). As Bulgarian troops crossed the Greek border into Eastern Macedonia, Venizelos and officers from the Greek Army launched a coup against the king. This resulted in a royalist government in Athens and a Venizelist government at Salonika which controlled much of northern Greece. Offensives in Macedonia Idle through much of 1917, Sarrails  Armee d Orient  took control of all of Thessaly and occupied the Isthmus of Corinth. These actions led to the exile of the king on June 14 and united the country under Venizelos who mobilized the army to support the Allies. In May 18, General Adolphe Guillaumat, who had replaced Sarrail, attacked and captured Skra-di-Legen. Recalled to aid in stopping the German Spring Offensives, he was replaced with General Franchet dEsperey. Wishing to attack, dEsperey opened the Battle of Dobro Pole on September 14 (Map). Largely facing Bulgarian troops whose morale was low, the Allies made swift gains though the British took heavy losses at Doiran. By September 19, the Bulgarians were in full retreat. On September 30, the day after the fall of Skopje and under internal pressure, the Bulgarians were granted the Armistice of Solun which took them out of the war. While dEsperey pushed north and over the Danube, British forces turned east to attack an undefended Constantinople. With British troops approaching the city, the Ottomans signed the Armistice of Mudros on October 26. Poised to strike into the Hungarian heartland, dEsperey was approached by Count Krolyi, the head of the Hungarian government, about the terms for an armistice. Traveling to Belgrade, Krolyi signed an armistice on November 10.

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